Introduction

The Second World War in Istria

The Second World War came to Istria whilst it was under Italian rule, to which it belonged after the end of the First World War and the collapse of Austria-Hungary, its previous ruler. The period of Italian rule in Istria, from 1920 until 1943, escalated during the fascist regime. It was characterised by bans, persecutions, humiliations and transformations that had reflected negatively on the identity and sustainability of Croats (and Slovenes) in Istria. Therefore, many emigrated, together with the anti-fascist Istrians, most often to the then Yugoslavia. It was, in fact, the first great wave of emigration due to the totalitarian regimes of the 20^thcentury.

After twenty months of war and German occupation, in the spring of 1945, the Second World War in Istria ended. The region became the subject of a dispute because of the eastern border of Italy, i.e. the western border of Slovenia and Croatia.

From 1945 to 1947, pending the decisions of the Peace Treaty which determined the fate of Istria, the entire territory of the Julian March was temporarily divided into Zone “A” (Trieste, Gorizia and Pula), under the control of the Anglo-Americans, and Zone “B” (the area east of the demarcation line, or the Morgan Line) under the Yugoslav military administration.

The visit of the Inter-Allied Commission in the spring of 1946, sent to the disputed areas to determine the national and economic situation on the ground, and the wait for the Peace Conference to be held, contributed to the strengthening of the conflict between the pro-Yugoslav and pro-Italian fronts. Namely, the logic of territoriality that led to the drawing of border lines on the ground was inevitably reflected in the social fabric of Istria, with disastrous consequences for the population of these areas.

Therefore, with the adoption of the French proposal for a new border between Italy and Yugoslavia, Rijeka and the greater part of Istria went to Yugoslavia, whilst for northwest Istria and Trieste an agreement was not reached between the victorious powers and it was decided to establish the Free Territory of Trieste, divided into Zone “A” and Zone “B”, the first under the administration of Anglo-Americans, and the second Yugoslav. The Peace Treaty was signed in Paris on 10^th February 1947, however, the formal transfer of sovereignty took place on 15^th September 1947. It was only in 1954, with the signing of the Memorandum of Understanding in London, that the fate of the never-created Free Territory of Trieste – Zone “A” was settled, and it passed over to the administration of Italy, and Zone “B” to Yugoslavia. The situation was only definitively resolved in 1975 with the Osimo Treaties.

1945 was also a year of extreme choices for many Istrians who went into exile.

Life in Istria after 1947

With the entry into force of the Peace Treaty in September 1947, Istria (except Zone “B” of the Free Territory of Trieste) and Rijeka became Yugoslav territory in every respect. In the first years (from 1945 to 1948), during the Stalinist phase of the Yugoslav regime, the authorities followed the Soviet model scrupulously. All aspects of political, economic, social and cultural life in this region were centralised and strictly controlled by the Communist Party. The nationalisation and sequestration of banks, companies and mines took place at an accelerated pace. The market economy and profit were abolished and replaced by a planned economy and five-year development plans. As in other parts of Yugoslavia, a new order imposed by the regime also reigned in Istria and was therefore greatly ideologised. A “people’s government” was established, based on People’s Committees, which were the basis of the new political and administrative system.

Drastic changes of a revolutionary nature were initiated in Istrian society, in the name of building socialism, strict economic measures were introduced (food distribution via vouchers), agrarian reform began, the nationalisation of estates larger than 35 hectares, and agricultural cooperatives were founded. The sequestration, confiscation and nationalisation of citizens’ property were the tools of the new “people’s justice.” A complete purge of the then institutional and administrative system was carried out – the new staff had to be politically reliable. All this led to the proletarianisation and elimination of the middle class in the social structure of the region. After 1947, the changes that occurred at the national, linguistic and cultural level in coastal, northern and western Istria were unprecedented in the history of the province.

Days of choices: to leave or stay?

The period from 1947 to 1954 was marked by deep cuts and painful traumas for the entire Istrian peninsula, which was abandoned by the majority of the Italian population and a significant community of Croats and Slovenes. It was a real mass migration that was only completed in 1956. The exodus of Italians from Istria and Rijeka represents a specific typology of mass emigration within the large forced population movements that took place in Central and Eastern Europe between the 19^th and 20^th centuries.

The complex origin of the exodus phenomenon, i.e. the reasons that led all social strata of the Italian population to make such a drastic choice, should be sought, apart from in subjective motives (mainly fear for their own physical safety, as well as radical political, economic, social and cultural changes that took place in Istrian society), in the policies implemented by the Yugoslav communist regime. The mass emigration actually began after the transformations introduced by the Yugoslav authorities, responsible for such physical, moral and spatial pressures that created an impossible living situation for the Italian population, and therefore leaving the homeland was the only possible way out.

The rhythm of the exodus was closely connected to international events and took place in three main phases: 1945-1947, 1948-1953, and 1953-1956, before and after the signing of the Treaty of Paris, i.e. the London Memorandum. For the most part, the exodus took place via the option for Italian citizenship, based on Article 19 of the Peace Treaty of 1947. However, there were also those who escaped secretly, by land or by boat. The times and methods of the departures, always dramatic, differed from place to place. According to some estimations, about 80-90% of the Italian population left the areas that belonged to Yugoslavia. Over the period of one decade, approximately 200,000-250,000 people who lived in the former provinces of Pula and Rijeka chose Italian citizenship and moved to Italy.

The reasons why some Italians decided to stay, which was an equally difficult choice, were of a political and ideological nature, or simply practical (a rejected application), but also sentimental, such as their attachment to their land, their field, or their old parents. The remaining Italians became a national minority who had to adapt to the new ideological forms and features of the regime.

Refugee camps

With the departure from Istria and Rijeka, the traumatic experience of losing one’s roots, discomfort, insecurity and frequent misery began for the mass of refugees who left the areas that came under Yugoslav sovereignty over the course of one decade. The acceptance of displaced people was not easy for Italy, which had come out of the war on its knees. Accepted with distrust and indifference, for the large number of refugees who were unable to provide for themselves a long stay in refugee camps and collection centres began in about 130 facilities located throughout the Italian territory. These were almost always abandoned complexes, such as barracks, military buildings, hospitals, schools, and even a former concentration camp (Risiera di San Sabba in Trieste) where families were forced to live without privacy and in poor hygienic conditions. A stay in refugee camps often lasted many years.

The Italian cities with a large number of exiles were Trieste, Gorizia, Turin, Padua, Florence and Rome. Thousands of them emigrated to other European and overseas countries (Belgium, Germany, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Venezuela, Canada, USA).

Over the years, in Italy and other countries, the world of exiles has created various forms of associations, societies, clubs and newspapers in order to deal with the many initiatives of a political, social and cultural nature linked to their reality and to keep alive the memory of the exodus.

Reconciliation and building memories

Italians on this side of the border and Italians on the other side – this is a page of Istrian history that was condemned to oblivion for a long time, either that or it was told through the prism of ideology or denial. The exodus was a drama of breaking social and family ties. In the painful events of the post-war period in Istria, pages of personal stories were written that marked people’s lives. Exiles and those remaining for a long time did not share their memories of the various suffering and feelings of abandonment. Many lives were broken because people left their homes, their country, as well as for those who stayed because their application was rejected or had to live with the departure of their loved ones, whilst towns and villages slowly emptied. From the 1960s, the border between Italy and Yugoslavia continued to divide the two worlds, and whilst some exiles did not want to return to Istria, others did re-establish relations with their homeland.

Only in recent years, after the collapse of communism and with European integration that led to the pacification of Italians, Slovenes and Croats through hard work in the easing of tensions – in which everyone is the custodian of their own memory – has the journey of reconciliation and dialogue between the exiles and those who remained begun.